Israeli Air Force Experience In Bekaa Valley War

Israeli Air Force Experience In Bekaa Valley War 1. The whole world argues whether the fighting between Israel, PLO and Syrians during Beckaa Valley war should be seen as WAR or just one more tragic surge in violence in the decades-long struggle between Israel and the Palestinians/Arabs. However, the war fought by the three parties has a great impact on a lot of aspects such as technology, strategy and the method used to conduct the war. This paper studies the war in term of lessons learnt in modern air battle with central focus on Electronic Warfare (EW), phases of changes in Israelis tactic and capabilities and implication of the war on todays modern air battle in term of training, intelligent, surprise, command control and communication (C3) and electronic combat. This also will help readers to have better and in-depth understanding on how Electronic warfare can be employed effectively and the importance of certain strategy assets for a nation to defend its self in future war or conflict. RMAF air power doctrine defined the role of RMAF during war. Roles played by the Israelis Air Force (IAF) during Beckka Valley war will enable readers to have better understanding of RMAF roles during war. AIM 2. This aim of the paper is to study Israeli Air Force experience in Bekaa Valley war in term of application of modern air power and its relevant lessons to Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF). In doing so, this paper pays particular attention to employment of Electronic Warfare (EW) during the war and its relations to roles of RMAF. BACKGROUND 4. On 6 June 1982, Israel defense Force invaded Lebanon in a campaign which, would become the most controversial military action in Israels history. Operation Peace for Galilee or known as Beckaa Valley War was launched to meet five Israelis national strategy goals  [1]  : a. Eliminate the PLO threat to Israels northern border. b. Destroy the PLO infrastructure in Lebanon. c. Remove Syrian military presence in the Bekaa Valley. d. Create a stable Lebanese government. 5. The Israelis population consists of Jewish who practice the religion of Judaism while the Arabs on the other hand practice Islam as their religions. According to their bible (Tanakh) the Jewish were told that they will defeat their enemies and take control of this land no matter who is the enemy. In Koran the Islamic bible the Arabs also was promised the same land. In 1948, when the Jews formed the State of Israel, the conflict between Arabs and Israelis started and they have fought continuously throughout history  [2]  . 6. Lebanon a country comprises of two major religion groups Catholic and Muslims. It was part of Syria before the French separate it 1861. The Catholic wanted a pro western government; however the Muslim wanted a government based on Islam. In 1926 the Lebanese leaders came to a power sharing agreement that the President should be a Catholic while the Prime Minister a Sunni  [3]  . 7. People Liberation Organization (PLO) was established in Jerusalem in 1964, with main Objective to destroy the Israel and gain complete control of Palestine. In Lebanon, the PLO created State within a state gained the support of Muslim population and declared the constitutions of power sharing agreement as obsolete. They collected their own taxes, funded its own school and organized a military that able to challenge Israelis northern border  [4]  . 8. The study of Bekaa Valley war must understand why the Israelis invaded. One of the main reasons for the Invasion was, PLO shelling of northern Israel from the end of 1973 till 1982. During this period PLO manages to launch 1,548 rocket attacks and killing almost 103 people. Usually, the Israelis responded with air raid, border raid and counter shelling as preventive measures. In 1978, Israelis started to lose patient on PLO as a result of failures of their preventive measure. March 1978, Israelis launched Operation Litani with purpose of driving the PLO north of Litani River in Lebanon and create a 25 KM buffer zone. The purpose of this buffer zone was the have an area of free PLO so that they could not launch any rocket attack  [5]  . 9. United Nation manages to pressure and forced the Israel to withdraw and replaced by its own force. The aim of UN was to maintain peace within the buffer zone and reestablishes the Lebanese government. However, the peace did not last long when the PLO starting to take control and began to continue their attacks on northern Israel borders. On 3rd June 1982, Shlomo Argov Israelis ambassador to the United Kingdom was shot by terrorist. The Israelis who needed a reason blamed the PLO and at 1100 on 6 Jun 1982 the Israelis defense force launched operation Peace for Galilee  [6]  . RESEARCH QUESTION 10. The following question is examined while doing this paper: a. What are the key factors to success of Israelis Air Force (IAF)? b. What type off assets employed by the IAF to achieve success? c. What strategy used to cripple the PLO and Syrian by IAF? LITERATURE REVIEW INVASION PLANS 11. Israel Defense Force (IDF) planning for an invasion of Lebanon began in 1978. The lessons learned from the operation Litani formed the basis of the Pine Tree plan. The invasion plan comprised of three alternative plans. The first plan called for an invasion 40 kilometers into Lebanon. Its purpose was to destroy the PLO in the south and their ability to terrorize northern Israeli settlements  [7]  . 12. The second plan was a more ambitious version of the first. The IDF would advance as far north as the vicinity of Beirut. The advantage of this plan was that it would include the PLO training and operational base at Damour, some 12 kilometers south of Beirut  [8]  . 13. The third and most ambitious plan, called Big Pines, included war against both the PLO and the Syrians. This plan called for the seizing of Lebanese territory including Beirut. Civilian leadership generally favored the first plan. However, Defense Minister Sharon and some high-ranking military leaders favored the larger war of the third plan. The plan that was officially approved remains in question  [9]  . COMBAT CAPABILITY 14. Apart from planning the invasion the Israelis also started developing their assets as preparation for the invasion. Even though, Israelis dependent heavily on American technology. However, they manage to develop their own technology. The table bellows show the development of IAF assets from 1973 to 1982 (source the military balance 1973 and 1982). Manpower 1973 1982 Reqular 15,000 30,000 Reserve 20,000 37,000 Equipment 1973 1982 Combat aircraft 488 634 F-4E Phantom 95 138 Mirrage III 35 24 A-4 Skyhawk 160 174 F-15 40 F-16 74 Kfir 160 SAM 10 Hawk bty 15 Hawk bty Table 1: Israelis rapid development of assets from 1973 to 1982 RMAF ROLES 15. Air Power is defined as the ability to project military force in air or from flatform or missiles operating above the surface nation RMAF primary mission is to defend the sovereignty and integrity of the nation and its interests through the proper and effective use of aerospace power. In order to carry out this mission RMAF define its roles in air power doctrine so that employment of assets and manpower can be utilize to the fullest in war  [10]  . 16. RMAF air strategies fall essentially into four broad roles  [11]  : a. Counter Air role. b. Force Application role. c. Force Enhancement role. d. Force Sustenance role. 17. Tables bellow defined the roles in details  [12]  : ROLES OPERATIONS MISSIONS TASKS COUNTER AIR OCA Airfield Attack To attack Aircraft on ground, Ammo and Fuel dump, C4I, Airfield facilities. Fighter Sweep Seek and destroy airborne aircraft, SEAD Destroy, neutralise, and degrade Radars and early warning systems, SAMs, AAA. DCA GAI Intercept, Identify, Shadow, Intervene and/or Force down, or Engage enemy aircraft. CAP Escorts Protect FGA aircraft or HVAA. Table 2: Examples of Counter Air roles and its operations and missions ROLES OPERATIONS MISSIONS TASKS FORCE APPLICATION STRATEGIC ATTACK To destroy, neutralise, degrade or disrupt; COG and Vital points. Destroy, neutralise and degrade HQ, key industries, and fielded forces and infrastructures. INTERDICTION To destroy, neutralise, degrade, disrupt or delay: LOC, War sustaining and military potential beyond the battlefield. Destroy, degrade, delay supply depot, HQ. OFFENSIVE AIR SUPPORT (OAS) BAI Destroy, neutralise or delay land forces, LOC, war machines, bridges. CAS MARITIME AIR OPERATIONS (MAO) ASuW Detect, identify, neutralise, destroy, ships, mine laying, ASW Detect, locate, track, submarine, mine laying. ARMED RECCE Opportunity targets within the battlefield. Locating and attacking personnel, material and facilities. Table 3: Examples of Force application roles and its operations and missions ROLES OPERATIONS MISSIONS TASKS FORCE ENHANCEMENT AIRLIFT Scheduled services. Movement of personnel and supplies. Airborne operations. Airdrop of personnel or cargo. Air logistic support. Distribute or recover personnel and materiel. Special air operations. Insertion and extraction of special forces, leaflet drop, voice broadcast. Aero-medical evacuation. MEDEVAC, CASEVAC, BODEVAC. AIR-TO-AIR REFUELLING (AAR) Towline AAR missions. Provide air-to-air refuelling. Trail AAR missions. AEW C Early warning and Surveillance. Provide information on enemy activity; provide air picture to AD forces C2, maritime surv. Control of air operations Control, monitor and direct OCA missions, manage AAR assets, coordinate rescue, assist in navigation. Weapons control. Control fighters, armed heli and GBAD. ELECTRONIC WARFARE (EW) ESM Search, intercept, identify and locate EM emissions. ECM Electronic jamming, neutralisation or deception of en C2, EM capabilities, acquisition and targeting and combat capabilities, launching active decoys like chaff and flares. EPM Spoofing, inserting erroneous information. ISR OPERATIONS Strategic recce. Strategic warning, provide info for RD and weapon systems acquisition. Operational recce. Weather and geographical recce, defining vulnerable and vital enemy elements. Tactical recce. BDA, combat assessment, tactical threat warning, target imagery. SPECIAL FORCE OPERATIONS Unconventional warfare, direct action, Combating terrorism, special recce, Civil affairs, PSYOPS, Information operations, Counter proliferation Collect intelligence, sabotage, espionage, rescue, target laser designation, path-finding. Table 4: Examples of Force Enhancement roles and its operations and missions ROLES OPERATIONS MISSIONS TASKS FORCE SUSTENANCE BASE DEFENCE OPS Base active air defence Defend from air attack (SHORAD, AAA). Base passive air defence CCD, dispersion, air raid warning, reconstitution, recuperation. Base security Anti: sabotage, espionage, insertion, infiltration. BASE SUPPORT OPS Training Receive, Induct, Special skills. Operations Provide ATC, airfield, rescue, fire fighting, wx and C4I services. Material Supply, RD, clothing, refuelling, ammunition transportation, rations. Maintenance Servicing, repair, testing, salvage, refurbish, manufacture. Administration Organising, Planning, Finance, Religious and Medical services, Welfare Discipline, Law and order and Accommodation. LOGISTICS OPERATIONS Material Acquisition, Movement, Distribution, Storage, Maintenance, Disposition. Personnel Movement, Evacuation, Medical care. Facilities Acquisition, Construction, Maintenance, Disposition, Operation. Services Acquisition or Furnishing. CSAR Search, Locate and Rescue. Downed Aircrew or Distressed personnel. Table 4: Examples of Force Sustenance roles and its operations and missions DISCUSSION TRAINING 18. The lesson learnt from the previous conflict prompt the Israelis to have better preparation for the invasion during the Beckaa Valley War. One of their main preparations was training. The main objective of the training was to get the personnel to know in dept of whats going to happen during the actual invasion. Massive training conducted at the borders involving numerous personnel and assets. Advancement in technology is key assets to IAF. However, in order to achieve success the IAF personnel need to understand and have experience in handling this equipment. 19. The IAF conducted extensive northern border training exercise which acted as rehearsal for incoming invasion. The exercise was conducted for the period of 13 months which include rehearsal of sorties against simulated SAM-6 target at northern desert. This countless rehearsals eliminate many problems that the planners did not see when drafting the invasion plan. This rehearsal also intended to create planed desensitization of the PLO and Syrians. Fearing the invasion is on the way the PLO and the Syrians reacted to first few training exercises. However due to the alert fatigue the PLO and Syrians ignored the following training exercises including the actual invasion. INTELLIGENT 20. Electronic Warfare (EW) involves action to control electromagnetic spectrum or directed energy; this action will impede the enemy capability or ability use the electromagnetic spectrum. Electronic signal Intelligent (ELINT) is a way to gather intelligent by use of electronic sensor. Signal identification is carried out by analyzing the collected parameters of specific signal to know its criteria, this data usually highly classified and protected. The gathered data usually pertinent to the enemy defense network especially the electronic part such as radar and surface-to-air missiles system. 21. As preparation for the invasion the IAF remotely piloted vehicles (RPV) overflew the area where the Syrians position their SAMs. These RPVs collected the intelligence which later used to develop the attack plan. The IAF use two assets in achieve the ELINT mission. The Mastiffs contained gyro stabilized television and high resolution camera which proven its effectiveness in photo reconnaissance. The Scouts is configured to carryout ELINT mission, picked up the radar emissions which enable the fingerprinting of the Syrians SAM radar. Both this assets able to deliver the information picked up directly to airborne or ground command post for immediate analysis. 22. Information gathered by the RPVs proven its effectiveness when the IAF manage to carry out their Suppression of Enemy Air Dense (SEAD) operation accurately and effectively. SURPRISE 23. Surprise depends on the initiative and is made more attainable by the versatility of the aerospace power. Where, when or how the enemy is struck is relatively independent of where and how and air force are postured Surprise is air power strongest advantage (air Power doctrine). 24. During Beckaa Valley war the IAF was able to achieve real surprise in the invasion because of Palestinians alert fatigue or cry wolf syndrome. The planed desensitization of PLO and Syrians worked when the IAF actually invaded Lebanon their ninth exercise and found that no real resistance from the PLO and Syrians. The PLO assume that, they had developed a deterrent to an Israelis invasion and the Syrians assumed that an attack to their SAM side is too risky for the IAF based on high losses that IAF suffered in previous conflict. Holding element of surprise in hand, along with good plan and precise intelligent IAF achieved success in Beckaa Valley war. COMMAND, CONTROL AND COMMUNICATION (C3) 25. C3 technology encompasses the capability to acquire, process and disseminate information across the force. The capability must be reliable, provide secure multilevel access, and be protected from enemy attacks. This will require advances not only in computing hardware and software but in the interconnecting fabric of communications. An important point to realize is that C3 is a human function. The method by which command and control is carried out is the C3 system, which serves to augment the cognitive functions of the individual engaged in command and control. A complex C3 system is an integrated combination of people, procedures, and hardware used to enhance the ability of the individual performing command and control. 26. IAF commanders proved that effective C3 is an important ingredient to successfully integrate combined armed effort. The IAF projected the role of C3 as the nervous system and the tactical commanders act as the brain. Two main assets that participate in C3 efforts was Israelis version of Boeing 707 and E-2C Hawkeyes. The Boeing 707 serves primarily as an electronic support measure (ESM) and electronic counter measure (ECM). ESM involves gathering of information while ECM involve in jamming and deception of enemy communication. The E-2C served as airborne command post, on this aircraft the tactical commanders was able to process real time intelligent, develop true picture of the tactical situation, coordinate its offensive assets with the proper timing, monitor the attack live and assess the effectiveness of the attack. SUPPRESSION OF ENEMY AIR DEFENSE 27. Once the training rehearsal completed, sufficient intelligent was gathered and setup of effective C3 is done the IAF went into action. To make a way for easy air battle its important to IAF to launch SEAD operation which is divided into 3 phases. 28. The first phase involve deception which stimulate the Syrians radar into action. The IAF launch RPVs over the target to re-verify the location of the SAM sides and their radar frequencies. The slow speed of the RPVs did not generate interest of the Syrians who thought another training rehearsal is ongoing. Combined with the ground forces the IAF launches Samsons and Delilahs decoys which received attention of Syrians because of the size and speed of this decoys similar to attacking aircraft when viewed on radar screen. IAF also launches these decoys in the direction of the sun to degrade Syrians optical guidance system which leaves them to relay on their radar. The Syrians took the bait as the launch their missiles towards the incoming decoys and increase their vulnerabilities to anti radiation missiles (ARM). The Boeing 707 sensor confirms the Syrians radar was fully activated and when they were on first reloads cycle the second phase was launched. 29. The second phase involved a lot of activities into effective harassment and suppression operation. The Boeing 707 now uses its ECM capability start jamming the Syrians radar. The jamming activites is not only carried out by the Boeing 707 it also involves ground based jammers and airborne jammers located on attach helicopters. Artillery fire with the aim of the targets adjusted by image from the RPVs started to harass the SAM operators. The SAM site also bombarded with 105mm Howitzer cannon and the same time the IAF launches chaff dispensing rockets to emphasis the jamming technique. With radar screen blinded and the operators harassed by the artillery fire, the IAF went into action. The F-4E launches Shrike and standard ARM missiles which homed in on the radar antenna. Once the attack was completed the tactical commanders was able to determine the remaining SAM that need to be destroyed. 30. The final phase of the SEAD operation concentrated on destroying the remaining Syrians SAM. E-2C Hawkeyes now vectored the IAF F-16s, A-4 and Kfir through undefended area to carry out attack on surviving radar vans and SA-6 missiles launchers. The IAF use multiple ammunition in this attack such standoff ammunitions, cluster bombs and general purpose bombs. The Syrians tried to fight back with launching the remaining missile, but due to the jamming effect their missiles lack of target acquisitions and target tracking the was ineffective towards IAF high maneuverable aircraft. THE AIR BATTLE. 31. The Israelis again utilize RPVs, Boeing 707 and E-2C Hawkeyes for the air battle. When the Syrians MiGs takes off from their air field the Israelis commander was able to watch live image feed through the RPVs loitering over head Syrian airfield. The E-2C Hawkeyes also was able to watch the MiGs takeoff using APS-125 radar which able to detect and track target up to 250 miles and ALR-59 passive detection system able to detect and classify target up to 500 miles. Using this advance technology the controller on board of the E-2C Hawkeyes vectored IAF F-15s and F-16s fighter to intercept the Syrian MiGs. The Syrians used Russian fighter tactic which highly dependent on ground controlled intercept (GCI). However, when the Syrians radar and communication line was jammed they were literally become sitting duck for IAF F-15s and F-16 fighter. LESSON LEARNED COUNTER AIR x. Counter air defined as the use of air power to deter, contain or defeat the enemy air forces. It assures the friendly use of the environment while denying its use to an enemy. Counter air roles can be divided into the following roles. x. Offensive counter air (OCA) To destroy, disrupts or confines enemy air power at their source and prevents them from conducting their own counter air campaign. x. Defensive counter air (DCA) Employ interceptors, escorts, armed helicopters or GBAD against enemy forces threatening to engage own forces or facilities or infiltrate our airspace. X. During the Beckaa Valley war the Israelis demonstrated how to apply counter air role in war. They showed how OCA able to achieve air superiority and open a getaway for DCA operation where they carried out the SEAD operation. FORCE APPLICATION x. Armed Reconnaissance is part of operation that carried out for force application roles. Mission is designed to for the purpose of locating and attacking targets of opportunity. It is a form of interdiction against opportunity targets in a designated area or along lines of communication within the battlefield. Control of the electronic spectrum showed how an integrated plan using RPVs, decoys, chaff and anti radiation missiles (ARM) can be used to terrorize the enemy. The ability to control electronic spectrum also will tremendously reduce the losses of friendly aircraft. FORCE ENHANCEMENT It multiplies the combat effectiveness of air and surface forces and increases the ability of these forces in non-combatant roles. The main operations applied at Beckaa Valley are Airborne Early Warning Command (AEWC) which employed using Boeing 707 and E-2C Hawkeye aircraft. Intelligent, surveillance and recce used the RPVs to carry out the mission. Employment of EW using various method, technique and equipment determine the success of IAF The Israelis demonstrated how the proper combination of air and land operation can cause devastating defeat of the enemy. Land based support through jammers, artillery, rocket, and missiles not only contribute but the cause huge damage to Syrian e SAMs. This action shows how important for the nation armed forces to concentrated all the weapon system available to achieve one goal. x. Israelis manage all the assets available to them through effective use of 3C; they demonstrated in any war the access or denial of C3 can make huge difference to determine the success of the mission. Having access to real-time intelligent benefited the Israelis to have better situational awareness and denial the Syrians of C3 create confusion within the Syrian forces and this is become the key for Israelis success at Beckaa Valley. x. Capability of having advance technology compare to your enemy will determine the success of any war. During Beckaa Valley the Israelis is well equipped with advance technology from the Americans. Even tough, the Syrians are equipped with the Russian technology but it is well known that the Russian was never fully transferred their full capability or technology to any country. The F-15 and F-16 is way much superior fighter compare to their adversary the Migs 21 and 23. Losing the C3 causing the MiGs lost direction and become practice target for the Israelis fighter. CONCLUSION It is easier and more effective to destroy the enemys aerial power by destroying his nests and eggs on the ground than to hunt for his flying birds in the air. Gen Giulio Douhet x. The Beckaa Valley war is an operation launched to achieve the Israelis national goal. To achieve this goals the Israelis demonstrated how a proper training, outstanding C3, intelligent gathering, control of electromagnetic spectrum and advance technology able determine the success of a war. RECOMMENDATION TRAINING x. As proven during Beckaa Valley war a proper training will determine the success of the war. RMAF has to plan the training according to the future needs especially paying particular attention into the electronic warfare. EW had to be implied to all officers and others ranks; starting from the basic training, EW should be included in training syllabus of recruits and cadet officers. x. Theory training must continue with practical training so that when the actual conflicts take place the personnel knows what to do. Currently RMAF are conducting EW training at Pusat Latihan Peperangan Khas (PLPE). However, the training which divided into basic and advance training lack of practical training. Lack off assets is a factor contributing factor for lack of practical training. RMAF had to revise the procurement plan so that it will include more EW assets and proper training can be carried out utilizing these equipments. ELECTRONIC WAR FARE SUPPORT CENTER (EWSC) x. EWSC was set up in 1995 to support the HAWK fleet EW operation. However the operations have not achieved its goal due to insufficient equipment. The F-18D has the capability of airborne self protection jammer but this equipment is only operating within the F-18 fleet. The latest procurement of sophisticated fighter the Su-30MKM incorporates the advance EW system; again this system is operating within the Sus. RMAF will not achieve success on EW if the current trend of buying is not changed. Every proposal of new EW system need to be studied thoroughly by EWSC and ensure the procurement can be integrated to all RMAF platforms x. EWSC must play more critical role during peace time. Analysis of data captured is critical for usage during conflict. Proper equipment has to be procured to support more advance function of EWCS. Interoperability between aircraft needs to be improved and RMAF had to make a clear requirement for the future needs so that it will tally by the way the war in future will be fought. ASSETS x. When we talk about assets for future conflict before we make any recommendation lets look of what our neighbors have; Country (Singapore) EW equipment Capability Ground SIGINT Operation Capable of comprehensively and systematically monitor communication out to 2,000 KM around the Island Airborne SIGINT Operation 2 x C-130 equipped with Israelis technology to carry out SIGINT, COMINT, ELINT mission 6 x Fokker-50 Maritime Enforcer Mark-2 maritime patrol aircraft equipped with modern SIGINT system Able to carry out EW mission from Australia, Andaman sea, west coast of Malaysia, Thailand and Myanmar. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) 40 X Searcher Mark II Israelis made Scout UAV Able to carry out task/mission that risk to human pilot, slow speed and low penetration will avoid radar detection and carry out SIGINT, ELINT and COMINT mission. Airborne Early Warning 4 X E-2C Hawkeyes Better coverage compare to ground radar and able to become airborne command post. Table 2; Singapore EW capability. x. Based on the table above can we determine where do we stand in term of EW? Are we able to defend our nation if we are under attack? These are some of the question that will hunt RMAF if we do happen to have conflict with our neighbors. Current RMAF assets are not capable of conducting EW campaign, even though we do have some EW elements on HAWK, F-18s and Su-30MKM but the usage is very limited. We recommend that RMAF to look into the future procurement list and start listing the following EW assets if we want to achieve success on EW conflict; x. UAV x. Airborne Early Warning Command System. x. Ground base or airborne based jammer system. X Protection of our communication line through Frequency hopping systems

Developments between 1860 and 1877 Essay

In 1861 the bloodiest and one of the most important revolutions in American History began, The Civil War. Socially this war had been brewing since the beginning of slavery. This controversial subject had been the object of debate mainly because it required a balance between free and slave states. Slavery was also a big issue between the Democrats in the 1860 election because they could not agree on the issue of popular sovereignty. This eventually led to their splitting which opened up the doors for Lincoln to take office. After Lincoln was inaugurated in 1860 seven states ceded and later four more. The south believed they were within their constitutional right to cede. In South Carolina’s Declaration of Causes for Session the state says, â€Å"Powers not delegated to the United States by the constitution†¦are reserved to the states (Doc A).† This leaves Lincoln at a quandary over the age old constitutional issue of Nullification and session debated back in the day of the Virginia Kentucky resolutions and Hartford Convention. He resolves that it is not within the states power to cede and brings the nation to war. The eventual victory for the North would bring about one of the greatest changes in history; the Emancipation Proclamation that forever ended slavery and changed the southern way of life. With Slavery no more and a Southern society in ruins more changes had to be made in the Reconstruction revolution. After Lincoln’s and Johnson’s plans for reconstruction failed, the Republicans who now controlled congress took the reigns. Socially there was the large issue of all these freedmen with nowhere to go, who are now demanding equality. In a petition written just after the war in 1865 from African Americans to the Tennessee Convention the blacks say, â€Å"If we are called to military duty†¦should we be denied the right to vote (Doc C).† That same year a letter to the Freedmen’s Bureau (a group dedicated to helping protect blacks and their rights), from a group of blacks was asking for homesteads so they may have the same rights as white land owners (Doc E). With the need to help these newly freed blacks and protect them from those endorsing things like the Black Codes, states had to develop a constitution with special specifications to black’s rights. The constitutional changes that occurred not only to the state governments but to the national governments as well were the thirteenth amendment that ended slavery, the fourteenth that made blacks citizens, and the fifteenth that gave blacks the right to vote as illustrated in The First Vote (Doc G). The latter developments changed the south and America forever. The entire southern way of life was flipped upside down economically and socially. Sharecropping and the crop-lien system emerged to solve the labor shortages, blacks status increased, and education expanded; these are some of the main results of the Reconstruction Revolution. The Final revolution of this time unfortunately was that of the Redeemers. Since the beginning the conservatives had been fighting reconstruction in the South. The South had always had people (the democrats) opposed to black suffrage. Gideon Wells said, â€Å"The Federal government has no right†¦to dictate the matter of suffrage (Doc D).† To resolve these conservatives would require literacy tests to vote, and reinstate property requirements. These methods were ways around the vague constitutional developments of the 15th amendment. Violence was also used as a means to control the black population in the South. The Klu Klux Klan and White League would use terrorist acts on blacks and lynch many innocent blacks to discourage them from voting as illustrated in (Doc I). Blacks were also segregated from whites, which after the Supreme Court case of Plessy v. Ferguson was deemed legal as long as they had equal opportunities; however, the blacks did not have equal opportunities but it still allowed the whites to avoid the 14th amendment. Finally, in the Compromise of 1877 Rutherford B. Hayes was elected president and withdrew the troops from the south. The north believed that with the vote the blacks could take care of themselves and they also had their eyes focused on the West. However, with the soldiers gone the blacks became once again subject to the will of the whites. This is where history is debated on whether reconstruction was a success because the Redeemer revolution reverted the south back to a segregated area of tension once again. The faà §ade that was America changed significantly from 1860 to 1877. The constitution had been written a century prior leaving out many key issues. To address these issues revolutions took place and in the end change was made. The debate over slavery and cession led to finally freeing those who never deserved oppression. The end of the Civil War brought about the need for black rights and new ways of life. Opposition to these revolutions led to the reverting revolution that turned back the clock taking away once again what so many died for. The social and constitutional developments that helped fuel these revolutions are responsible for some of the nation’s greatest achievements like the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments, and some of the worst like segregation.

Intercultural Communication and Business Practice

Intercultural Communication and Business Practice: The system of sharing symbolic resources by a group of people is known as culture and communication is basically the practice of making and exchanging these symbolic resources or meanings. Since intercultural communication is basically communication between people of various cultures, intercultural business communication is considered as the communication by people of different cultures between and within businesses (Chen, 2007).The importance of intercultural business communication and impact of intercultural communication in business practice is largely because of diversity in the workplace. Most organization and businesses depend on intercultural communication since cultural differences do not prevent people from working with each other. Actually, in today’s business environment, the need for good intercultural communication skills cannot be underestimated since it results in better business. Revolutionary Shift in Business Practice through Intercultural Communication:As compared to fifteen years ago, business ventures and practice are rapidly becoming more and more globalized (Shively, 2010). This is largely due to the fact that today’s world is characterized by an ever increasing number of interactions between people from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. International business has begun to develop in more prominent cultures with the exception of only a few regions. Consequently, the revolutionary shift in business practice from an intercultural communication angle is the rapid development of international business ventures across the globe.Business ventures and enterprises are now adopting an international or global perspective that enables them to conduct their business effectively across various cultures. This shift to international business from a global perspective is due to the fact that intercultural communication is a common daily experience, universal phenomenon and has been on-going for thousands of years. The increase of intercultural communication in the twenty-first century is also a factor that has contributed to the revolutionary shift in business practice.From an intercultural communication angle, there are four major developments that were significant to the rapid growth of intercultural communication and revolutionary shift in business practice. These major developments include: 1. Developments in Transportation Technology: The developments in transportation technology has not only helped in shrinking the world to a global village but it has in turn created a means for people to travel anywhere within a period of days (â€Å"Chapter 1† n. d. ).As a result of this easier and quicker traveling, people from different cultural backgrounds communicate in the modern world and engage in business ventures and practices. 2. Improvements in Communication Technology: Improvements in communication technology happened concurrently with those in transportation technology prompting the rapid movement toward a global village. These improvements have resulted in the ability of people to have instant vocal, video, textual and graphic communication. Consequently, conducting international business has also been made easier because of the instant global communication in various forms. . Changes in Patterns of Mass Migration: With the movement of millions of people across national borders, contacts with people from other cultures have now become a normal part of day-to-day life. This has made businesses to strive in attempts to adapt to the cultural diversity including advertising to communities using their respective language. Such efforts enable businesses to communicate effectively to their customers from different cultural backgrounds. 4. Globalization of the World Economy:This is the major development in intercultural communication that has resulted in the revolutionary shift in business practice since international businesses have become a vital economic force for many nations. This development has been brought by the fact that intercultural communication serves as a platform for conducting international business through international communication. The globalization of the world’s economy has challenged business people to become more internationally aware and inter-culturally adept. Revolutionary shift in business practice is also evident in the fact that globalization has promoted mobility and made the abor market more challenging (Espinar, 2010). However, working in an international team and interacting with business partners or customers from different cultural backgrounds has brought challenges and the need for new attitudes and skills. For international businesses to gain competitive advantage, there is need for conscious efforts in acquiring new skills to communicate successfully in a global context (â€Å"Introduction†, n. d. ). Furthermore, the global business environment requires a broad training on intercultural communication because of the cultural diversity and increasing globalization. Cultural Diversity Management:Since the need for communication is a fundamental principle in the success of any business, management of cultural diversity is crucial. This is because intercultural communication may present difficult impediments that cover the whole communication spectrum. These intercultural barriers and conflicts that characterize today’s workplace basically involve verbal and non-verbal communication factors which have a huge impact on communication with people of other cultures. The major intercultural barriers and conflicts include ethnocentricity, jargon and slang, stereotypes, eye contact, time and personal space.Ethnocentricity is basically considered as the assumption that other cultures speak the same language with a person’s culture. This has resulted in businesses conducting their transactions on their language and contributed to the failure of these businesses in foreign markets. While every culture develops unique sets of jargons and slang and use them in their business ventures, people from other cultures do not understand their meanings resulting in intercultural communication barriers. Various cultures have distinct approaches to personal space and a lack of cultural understanding may make certain people uncomfortable (Evans, n. . ). Stereotypes and assumptions across cultures have distinct meanings which significantly impact effective intercultural communication. Understanding cultural norms concerning eye contact and time is essential in effective intercultural business communication. This is due to the divergent approaches to eye contact and time across various cultures. Throughout the history of management of cultural diversity in businesses, there have been significant changes in which has led to the adoption of new business practices in handling intercultural communication barriers and conflicts.F rom a historical perspective, addressing these barriers and conflicts was based on the predominantly indigenous and homogenous workforce. Intercultural business communication was minimal because of the nature of the business environment that wasn’t culturally diverse. The general cultural diversity management was developed through anti-discrimination, equality legislation, workplace ethics and affirmative action. The management mainly relied on affirmative action and equality policies to handle the intercultural barriers and conflicts in the workplace.This business practice and approach by the management developed in the United States and was intended to conquer the dominance of white males in the business and workplace environment. Generally, there was no strategic approach of addressing intercultural communication barriers and conflicts. Management practices in the handling of intercultural communication barriers and conflicts have changed over time because of the worldâ₠¬â„¢s increasing globalization. Given that people are no longer in an insular marketplace and have become part of the global economy, there is need for interacting with people of divergent cultures.Consequently, management of and importance of workplace diversity has become a fundamental issue for management today (Green et al, n. d. ). One of the major changes in diversity management is the development of the necessary managerial skills to supervise a multicultural work environment. These managerial skills basically involve training on multicultural differences within the organization in order to treat business associates, colleagues, partners and customers with dignity.The current approach in handling intercultural communication obstacles and intercultural conflicts are not confined to compliance driven or rights-based practices. While equality and other diversity management legislations are integral in the process, the current practices involve a holistic approach. This holistic approach is for the strategic use of the diversity of people in the business environment to achieve business and organizational incentives. Instead of focusing on making the individuals fit to institutional values, the holistic approach focuses on valuing the individual.As a result, the management and business objectives are connected since the approach capitalizes on drawing potential from individuals’ diversity. Conclusion: Intercultural business communication is essential to today’s business environment because of the diverse workforce which is a reflection of the changing marketplace and world. While a culturally diverse workforce adds greater value to organizations and businesses, it also brings several challenges and conflicts that need to be addressed. Therefore, it’s important for managers to possess necessary skills in handling these challenges to communicate effectively.References: â€Å"Chapter 1: Introduction to Intercultural Communication. † (n. d. ). Learning Chapters, from www. cflo. edu. cn/jiaocai/109/147/992075/. doc Chen, J. (2007, August 7). International Business Communication, from http://ccomm. bravehost. com/Report1. html Espinar, A. L. (2010). The Use of ICT In The Development of Intercultural Business Communication, from http://www. pixel-online. net/ICT4LL2010/common/download/Proceedings_pdf/LBV06-Larrea_Espinar. pdf Evans, K. (n. d. ). Six Barriers to Intercultural Communication, from http://www. how. com/list_6303080_six-barriers-intercultural-communication. html Green et al (n. d. ). Diversity in the Workplace: Benefits, Challenges and the Required Managerial Tools, from http://edis. ifas. ufl. edu/hr022 â€Å"Introduction. † (n. d. ). Research on Contemporary Diplomacy, from DiploFoundation Education website: http://www. diplomacy. edu/language/communication/main. htm Shively, M. (2010, March 29). Intercultural Business Taboos: What to Avoid, from http://www. associatedcontent. com/article/28199 50/intercultural_business_taboos_what. html

A Summary OfIt Always Costs By David Suzuki Summary

ugh Draft 3 David Suzuki’s essay, â€Å"It Always Costs† argues that technology is always accompanied my negative repercussions. Suzuki clearly emphasizes the negative effects that technology presents by objectifying the damaging nature of scientific innovation. Throughout his essay, Suzuki supports his arguments with specific examples. To justify his reasoning, the author uses the case of DDT, otherwise known as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. This chemical compound is used as an insecticide to eliminate the population of malaria-carrying mosquitoes, which it did effectively, and saved millions of lives. Unfortunately, due to unforeseen circumstances, complications arose, which led to an increase in chemicals and caused a domino effect of†¦show more content†¦Scientific innovations have caused numerous side effects, which Suzuki explains throughout his essay, but when he links his ideas to examples, such as biomagnification, he reinforces himself. Every piece of evidence Suzuki presents is always explained effectively, he will explain why the example proves his point without loosing sight of his end argument. The arguments are all very well thought out and relevant to his essay. Continually, David Suzuki always supports his propos itions with authentic proof to relay his stance on technology. David Suzuki supports his argument with specific examples and he rationalises each one; however, he overlooks the important detail that technology is beneficial to our society. Throughout the essay the author repeatedly mentions the negative effects technology has, but he never provides an argument for the advantages of new innovations. Although technology may have its faults, we depend on it as a society. As Suzuki states in his essay, â€Å"Once technology is in place, it becomes impossible to do without it and we can’t go back to doing things the old way†. Without a constant cycle of new innovations and technology, as a society we would digress. Everyday we depend on technology, it is an imperative factor to surviving. The numerous benefits of technology are endless: improved environmental understandings, cancer research and cures, as well as a better economy. Since there are no explicit references to the advantages,